As the inclusion of this variable did not have any significant effects or substantively change any of the relationships, we elected to omit this variable in our report of model testing. We assessed model—data fit by using multiple indices.
The standardized root mean square residual SRMR is the average standardized residual value derived between the variance—covariance matrix for the hypothesized model and the variance—covariance matrix of the sample data Bollen, The value of the SRMR should approximate or be less than. The Comparative Fit Index CFI tests the proportionate improvement in fit by comparing the hypothesized model with the independence model Bentler, The value of the CFI should approximate 0.
The root mean square error of approximation RMSEA represents closeness of fit, and values approximating 0. All path coefficients and correlations are reported as standardized estimates. Table 1 describes the sample, including demographic and biometric variables from baseline to the fifth year. As can be seen, the individuals making up the sample are predominantly female, white, overweight, low fit, and with a variety of existing disease conditions.
Table 2 contains the mean scores and standard deviations for all variables included in the data analysis, and Table 3 contains a matrix of correlations among all of those variables.
We used bivariate correlations to test the hypothesis that physical activity and self-efficacy would be associated with self-esteem at the subdomain, domain, and global levels see Table 3. In general, this hypothesis was supported at both the Year 1 and Year 5 measurement points, with higher levels of self-efficacy and physical activity being significantly related to higher levels of esteem relative to physical condition, attractive body, and strength.
In addition, more active and efficacious respondents reported greater physical self-worth and global self-esteem. These relationships were consistent at both 1 and 5 years, with the exception of the physical activity and global esteem relationship at Year 1, which was nonsignificant.
Figure 2 shows the relationships among study constructs at 1 year and among changes in these constructs 4 years later. We next conducted a post hoc specification search; however, the modification indices and standardized residuals did not identify any theoretically relevant paths that could be added for improving the fit of the model for the data.
The overall model fitting results provided empirical support for the a priori hypothesized model. As can be seen, at Year 1 there were statistically significant direct effects of both physical activity and self-efficacy on the physical condition, body attractiveness, and strength subdomain-level esteem variables.
There were direct effects of all three subdomain-level esteem variables on physical self-worth, and a direct effect of physical self-worth on global self-esteem. There was a statistically significant correlation between physical activity and self-efficacy.
We do not include these latter coefficients on the path diagram for the sake of clarity. Analyses of the relationships among model components over time indicated that there were statistically significant direct effects of both change in physical activity and change in self-efficacy on residual change in the physical condition and strength subdomain-level esteem variables. There were direct effects of change in the physical condition, attractive body, and strength subdomain-level esteem variables on residual change in physical self-worth, and a direct effect of change in physical self-worth on change in global self-esteem.
Importantly, the prospective path examining the relationship between physical activity at Year 1 and self-efficacy at Year 5 was nonsignificant, suggesting that the mediation of physical activity effects on esteem variables through self-efficacy was not supported.
Self-efficacy at Year 1 was significantly related to physical activity at Year 5. All statistically significant path coefficients, as well as the stability coefficients, are shown in Figure 2.
Although there were statistically significant correlations between disturbance terms for changes in physical condition and attractive body. Moreover, we saturated the model for initial treatment condition and the path coefficients did not change in size, directions, or significance. In the present study we examined the relationships among physical activity, self-efficacy, and multidimensional self-esteem across a 4-year period in a sample of older adults.
In particular, we were interested in establishing the extent to which a modified version of the EXSEM Sonstroem et al. In this latter model, effects of changes in physical activity and self-efficacy on multidimensional self-esteem were proposed to operate in a parallel fashion, as opposed to the original EXSEM, which proposed an indirect effect of physical activity on self-esteem through efficacy see Figure 1.
By and large, all of the hypothesized relationships in the 1-year and longitudinal data were substantiated. Interestingly, the two base-level predictors of esteem, physical activity and self-efficacy, were related at 1 year, but the relationship between changes in these variables over time was nonsignificant. Clearly, one would expect longitudinal relationships to be attenuated; however, the lack of association may come from the manner in which self-efficacy and physical activity were assessed in the present study.
For example, the focus of the efficacy measure was on exercising for three times per week for 40 minutes or more at a moderate intensity for incremental monthly periods. Therefore the association of the PASE, which assesses overall activity, with the exercise-specific efficacy measures may be reduced.
That is, reduced capacity to carry out domestic and occupational activities that necessitate muscular strength e. Consequently, one recommendation for future applications of this model may well be to use additional measures of physical activity that are not simply leisure-time activities.
For example, assessment of functional fitness items that reflect endurance, speed, and strength and have implications for independent living may prove valuable to our further understanding of these relationships in older adults. IADLs, which can be indicative of reduced functional independence, are likely to be enhanced by physical activity participation and also have an additional influence on self-worth.
We believe that our examination of self-esteem and physical activity relationships across a 4-year period of time represents one of the more definitive tests of the EXSEM components to date. Because we were interested in examining this model in the context of how relationships held up under free-living conditions i.
For example, older adults reporting greater reductions in self-efficacy over time also reported greater reductions in self-esteem relative to body attractiveness, physical condition, and strength.
These relationships were consistent at 1 year and across time. However, we found no support for any mediating effect of physical activity on esteem variables through self-efficacy.
We believe it important to continue to examine such relationships across diverse activity environments, and we urge that the original and adapted models of the EXSEM continue to be tested. In so doing, we suggest that multiple efficacy measures be employed in subsequent studies.
That is, rather than tap generic physical activity or exercise behaviors, one might use measures that assess beliefs in capabilities to maintain and or improve levels of physical condition, strength, and physical appearance.
Similarly, measures designed to tap capabilities to successfully carry out important IADLs may also be warranted. Employment of multiple measures may serve to support the original indirect effects model of physical activity—efficacy—esteem proposed by Sonstroem and colleagues or offer further evidence for the parallel or main effects model that our data support. In addition, multiple measures of efficacy would permit testing of the specificity and generality principles associated with social cognitive theory Bandura, , In some respects, our data do provide some limited evidence for the specificity principle in that both efficacy and physical activity showed stronger relationships with physical condition esteem than with attractive body or strength esteem.
As predicted by the EXSEM, changes in all three subdomains were positively associated with changes in physical self-worth, which was in turn the sole predictor of global self-esteem.
Two conclusions can be reached from such findings. First, as Marsh and Marsh and Sonstroem have previously noted, if one is interested in physical activity relations with self-esteem, then it makes a great deal of sense to focus on physical self-esteem rather than global measures. However, it also appears from our findings that changes among model components over longer periods of time are instrumental in changes in global self-esteem.
A good portion of this variance is, of course, attributable to the stability of global esteem over time. Nonetheless, physical declines associated with aging are likely to have an impact on one's overall sense of self-worth. Therefore, whereas physical self-esteem may be the most important component of esteem models relative to physical activity interventions, it would appear imprudent not to assess the relationship among model components and global esteem over significant periods of time.
It is an unfortunate limitation in these data that we were unable to include changes in such physical parameters as body composition and cardiorespiratory fitness in our model testing. Although these data were collected, there were considerable missing data with respect to the physiological assessments ranging from Even using the FIML estimator, we find that such a large amount of missing data is problematic.
We recommend that subsequent tests of the parallel effects EXSEM include the assessment of not just aerobic fitness and body composition but, as noted earlier, aspects of strength, flexibility, agility, and IADLs.
These latter elements coupled with endurance assessments represent more functional aspects of fitness and may have greater applicability and relevance as changes incurred through physical activity interventions for older adults. Depending on the nature and goals of the intervention, differential patterns of relationships with subdomain esteem levels may well emerge.
A further limitation is reflected in the ethnic composition of our sample, which was primarily White. As physical activity interventions are being increasingly targeted at rapidly growing minority groups such as African Americans and Latinos, it will be of interest to test the extent to which our support for multidimensional and hierarchical models of physical activity, self-efficacy, and self-esteem can be replicated in these populations.
Finally, we do acknowledge that a two-time-point panel model precludes any causal inferences regarding changes in or prediction of individual difference variables. Living well in concert with living longer is an important public health goal in our society, and quality of life outcomes are receiving increasing scientific and lay attention.
As scientists further explore the role played by physical activity in physical and psychological health across the life span, efforts are needed to establish how these health effects are related to one another, to multidimensional self-esteem, and to overall quality of life.
For example, various life events that are clearly of a physical nature e. Therefore, it would appear that the maintenance or reacquisition of aspects of physical function abilities that underlie independent living as we age would be important outcomes of physical activity and determinants of physical self-worth. This, in turn, is likely to act as a proximal indicator of quality of life Elavsky et al.
The results of the present study warrant that future work address the extent to which improvements in physical and psychological function brought about by physical activity influence quality of life. Decision Editor: Thomas M. Hess, PhD. Panel model showing longitudinal relationships among physical activity, self-efficacy, and self-esteem.
David X. Arbuckle, J. Full information estimation in the presence of incomplete data. Schumacker Eds. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Baldwin, K. Exercise and self-esteem in breast cancer survivors: An application of the exercise and self-esteem model. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology , 19 , Bandura, A. Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory.
Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman. Bentler, P. Comparative fix indexes in structural models. Psychological Bulletin , , Boileau, R. If you would like, you can take the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Assessment online scores below a 15 indicate a low self-esteem.
If you are concerned about your self-esteem level, please reach out to a mental health professional. Even if you have a relatively high self-esteem, you will be well-served by practicing self-esteem enhancing strategies. Here is a list of several strategies you can use on a regular basis. We will first define each of them and then focus on exercise as a strategy.
Positive self-talk: The way we think about and talk to ourselves very strongly influences our self-esteem. If you notice that you are spiraling into a habit of negative self-talk, literally say to yourself in your head or out loud , STOP, and then re-frame the thought. Focus on what is under your control: There are many circumstances that we have very little control over.
It is important to realize the things we do have control over and focus on those. We need to spend our time and energy focusing on what is within our sphere of influence, and let go of the rest. Find your tribe: Have you ever heard that you start to become like the 5 people you spend the most time with?
It is so important that we surround ourselves with positive people, with friends who are going to give us an honest, but positive assessment of who we are and our worth. If you find that the folks you are hanging around send you into a negative spiral, it might be time to find a new tribe. There are many mechanisms by which exercise increases our evaluations of our self. First, in the short-term, exercise enhances our mood and puts our mind in a more positive state.
Second, in the long-term, exercise makes us feel good about our physical self — our abilities and physique. Last, and in both the short and long-term, exercise provides us with a sense of accomplishment that boosts our confidence. Here are a few tips on how to effectively use exercise to enhance your self-esteem:. People who suffer from low self-esteem will find aerobic exercises especially beneficial.
As your physical appearance improves, so will your confidence. It would suffice to do minutes of aerobic exercises at least days a week in order to notice significant results, but if you add to it different resistance exercises only 2 or 3 times a week, it will vastly improve your best body assets.
There are many apps that can help you keep track of your weight, frequency and length of exercise, and also the number of repetitions to increase over time. You can also take pictures of yourself to monitor your progress. When you start noticing positive changes, allow yourself to celebrate. Share it with people close to you and give yourself a treat to reward yourself for your achievement. If you persist in regularly working out, you will definitely be taking steps to improve your confidence as well as your love for yourself — something that each of us should feel every day of our lives.
A word of caution: If you have particularly low self-esteem, physical exercise could become addictive, even compulsive. You could end up equating your self-worth with how much you exercise.
If you find that you are feeling bad or angry at yourself if you miss a day of workout, you are missing the point of why you started exercising in the first place — to feel better about yourself and achieve healthier mind, body and balance in life. So take it easy, do it out of love, and watch yourself blossom! Mia Johnson is a writer with a ten-year long career in journalism. She has written extensively about health, fitness, and lifestyle.
A native to Melbourne, she now lives in Sydney with her 3 dogs where she spends her days writing and taking care of her square feet garden.
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